WALLS

A wall is a usually solid structure that defines and sometimes protects an area. Most commonly, a wall delineates a building and supports its superstructure, separates space in buildings into rooms, or protects or delineates a space in the open air. There are three principal types of structural walls: building walls, exterior boundary walls, and retaining walls.

CEILING

A ceiling is an overhead interior surface that bounds the upper limit of a room. It is generally not a structural element, but a finished surface concealing the underside of the floor or roof structure above.
dropped ceiling is one in which the finished surface is constructed anywhere from a few inches to several feet below the structure above it. This may be done for aesthetic purposes, such as achieving a desirable ceiling height

DOORS

A door is a panel or barrier, usually hinged or sliding, that is used to cover an opening in a wall or partition going into a building or space. A door can be opened to give access and closed more or less securely. The term door is also applied to the opening itself, more properly known as the doorway.
Doors are nearly universal in buildings of all kinds, allowing passage between the inside and outside, and between internal rooms. When open, they admit ventilation and light.
The purpose of a door closure is primarily to give occupants of a space privacy and security by regulating access. For this purpose doors are equipped with a variety of fittings ranging from simple latches to locks.
The door is used to control the physical atmosphere within a space by enclosing it, excluding air drafts, so that interiors may be more effectively heated or cooled. Doors are significant in preventing the spread of fire.
Doors also have an aesthetic role in creating an impression of what lies beyond. They are also used to screen areas of a building for aesthetic purposes, keeping formal and utility areas separate. They act as a barrier to noise.

WINDOW

A window is an opening in an otherwise solid and opaque surface that allows the passage of light and, if not closed or sealed, air and sound. Windows are usually glazed or covered in some other transparent or translucent material. Windows are held in place by frames, which prevent them from collapsing in.

PAINTS

Paint is any liquid, liquifiable, or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque solid film.

Paint is used to protect, preserve, decorate (such as adding color), or add functionality to an object or surface by covering it with a pigmented coating. An example of protection is to retard corrosion of metal. An example of decoration is to add festive trim to a room's interior. An example of added functionality is to modify light reflection or heat radiation of a surface. Another example of functionality is the use of color to identify hazards or to identify the function of equipment and pipelines.

FLOOR

A floor is the bottom surface of a room. A floor often has a "subfloor" beneath its walking surface, which may include floor heating, and conduits for water and electricity. Installing a floor covering is called "flooring".

FLOOR COVERING-is a term to generically describe any finish material applied over a floor structure to provide a walking surface.

1.CARPET is a floor covering woven or felted from natural or man-made fibers.

2.LAMINATE is a floor covering that appears similar to hardwood but is made with a plywood or medium density fiberboard core with a plastic laminate top layer.

3.WOOD flooring any different species of wood are fabricated into wood flooring in two primary forms: plank and parquet. Bamboo flooring is also available. While bamboo is technically not a wood, bamboo flooring is installed and functions much like wood flooring.

4. CERAMIC TILE includes a wide variety of clay products fired into thin units which are set in beds of mortar or mastic with the joints between tiles grouted. Varieties include quarry tile, porcelain tile, terra cotta tile, and others.

5.TERRAZZO consists of marble or other stone aggregate set in mortar and ground and polished to a smooth surface.

ROOF

A roof is the covering on the uppermost part of a building. A roof protects the building and its contents from the effects of weather. Structures that require roofs range from a letter box to a cathedral or stadium, dwellings being the most numerous.
In most countries a roof protects primarily against rain. Depending upon the nature of the building, the roof may also protect against heat, against sunlight, against cold and against wind. Other types of structure, for example, a garden conservatory, might use roofing that protects against cold, wind and rain but admits light. A verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements.
The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it covers, the available roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concepts of architectural design and practice and may also be governed by local or national legislation.

TRUSS

truss is a structure comprising one or more triangular units constructed with straight slender members whose ends are connected at joints referred to as nodes. External forces and reactions to those forces are considered to act only at the nodes and result in forces in the members which are either tensile or compressive forces.
A planar truss is one where all the members and nodes lie within a two dimensional plane, while a space truss has members and nodes extending into three dimensions.

PRATT TRUSS:
was patented in 1844 by two Boston railway engineers[5]; Caleb Pratt and his son Thomas Willis Pratt[6]. The design uses vertical beams for compression and horizontal beams to respond to tension. What is remarkable about this style is that it remained popular even as wood gave way to iron, and even still as iron gave way to steel.
BOW STRING ROOF TRUSS:
Named for its distinctive shape, thousands of bow strings were used during World War II for aircraft hangars and other military buildings.
TOWN'S LATTICE TRUSS:
American architect Ithie Town designed Town's Lattice Truss as an alternative to heavy-timber bridges. His design, patented in 1835, uses easy-to-handle planks arranged diagonally with short spaces in between them.
THE VIERENDEL TRUSS:
is a truss where the members are not triangulated but form rectangular openings, and is a frame with fixed joints that are capable of transferring and resisting bending moments. Regular trusses comprise members that are commonly assumed to have pinned joints with the implication that no moments exist at the jointed ends. This style of truss was named after the Belgian engineer Arthur Vierendeel, who developed the design in 1896.
The beauty of this type of truss is that there is no diagonal bracing, the creation of rectangular openings for windows and doors is simplified and in cases the need for compensating shear walls is reduced or eliminated.

HOLLOW BLOCKS

Concrete hollow blocks or CHB is generally used for house construction. its name is derived from its appearance having holes or hollow spaces. it varies widely in size shapes and cost. but generally a 4 inches thick CHB is widely used in the Philippines in constructing houses.
Concrete hollow blocks are usually made of sand gravel and cement and is mixed by water, some put others materials to make it more strong,then the mixture is put in CHB shaper.

BEAMS

A beam is a structural element that is capable of withstanding load primarily by resisting bending. The bending force induced into the material of the beam as a result of the external loads, own weight and external reactions to these loads is called a bending moment.

Beams generally carry vertical gravitational forces but can also be used to carry horizontal loads (i.e., loads due to an earthquake or wind). The loads carried by a beam are transferred to columns, walls, or girders, which then transfer the force to adjacent structural compression members. In Light frame construction the joists rest on the beam.

POST

A structural member subjected principally to compressive stresses. Concrete columns may be unreinforced, or they may be reinforced with longitudinal bars and ties (tied columns) or with longitudinal bars and spiral steel (spiral-reinforced columns). Sometimes the columns may be a composite of structural steel of cast iron and concrete.

FOUNDATIONS

The foundation of the structure holds the structure in its place, its also holds the structure from overturning in addition to its weight.

TYPES OF FOUNDATION:

T-SHAPED:
A traditional foundation method to support a structure in an area where the ground freezes. A footing is placed below the frost line and then the walls are added on top. The footing is wider than the wall, providing extra support at the base of the foundation. A T-shaped foundation is placed and allowed to cure; second, the walls are constructed; and finally, the slab is poured between the walls.
SLAB-ON-GRADE:
As the name suggests, a slab is a single layer of concrete, several inches thick. The slab is poured thicker at the edges, to form an integral footing; reinforcing rods strengthen the thickened edge. The slab normally rests on a bed of crushed gravel to improve drainage. Casting a wire mesh in the concrete reduces the chance of cracking. A slab on grade is suitable in areas where the ground doesn't freeze, but it can also be adapted with insulation to prevent it from being affected by the frost heaves.
FROST PROTECTED:
This method only works with a heated structure. It relies on the use of two sheets of rigid, polystyrene insulation—one on the outside of the foundation wall and the other laid flat on a bed of gravel at the base of the wall—to prevent freezing, which is a problem with slab-on grade foundations in areas with frost. The insulation holds heat from the structure in the ground under the footings and prevents heat loss from the edge of the slab. This heat keeps the ground temperature around the footings above freezing.

BRIDGES

Since ancient times, engineers have designed four major types of bridges to withstand all forces of nature
THE BEAM BRIDGES
consists of a horizontal beam supported at each end by piers. The weight of the beam pushes straight down on the piers. The farther apart its piers, the weaker the beam becomes. This is why beam bridges rarely span more than 250 feet.
THE TRUSS BRIDGES
consists of an assembly of triangles. Truss bridges are commonly made from a series of straight, steel bars. The Firth of Forth Bridge in Scotland is a cantilever bridge, a complex version of the truss bridge. Rigid arms extend from both sides of two piers. Diagonal steel tubes, projecting from the top and bottom of each pier, hold the arms in place. The arms that project toward the middle are only supported on one side, like really strong diving boards. These "diving boards," called cantilever arms, support a third, central span.
THE ARCH BRIDGES
has great natural strength. Thousands of years ago, Romans built arches out of stone. Today, most arch bridges are made of steel or concrete, and they can span up to 800 feet
THE SUSPENSION BRIDGES
can span 2,000 to 7,000 feet -- way farther than any other type of bridge! Most suspension bridges have a truss system beneath the roadway to resist bending and twisting.

DAMS

With the exception of the Great Wall of China, dams are the largest structures ever built. Throughout history, big dams have prevented flooding, irrigated farmland, and generated tremendous amounts of electricity. Without dams, modern life as we know it would simply not be the same.
Since the first large-scale dam was built in Egypt more than 5,000 years ago, engineers have devised various types of dams to withstand the forces of a raging river.
ARCH DAMS
are good for narrow, rocky locations. They are curved, and the natural shape of the arch holds back the water in the reservoir. Arch dams, like the El Atazar Dam in Spain, are thin and require less material than any other type of dam.
BUTTRESS DAMS
may be flat or curved, but one thing is certain: a series of supports, or buttresses, brace the dam on the downstream side. Most buttress dams, like the Bartlett Dam in Arizona, are made of reinforced concrete.
EMBANKMENT DAMS
are the most commonly built dams in the United States. They are massive dams made of earth and rock. Like gravity dams, embankment dams rely on their heavy weight to resist the force of the water. But embankment dams are also armed with a dense, waterproof core that prevents water from seeping through the structure. Tailings dams -- large structures that hold back mining waste -- are a type of embankment dam.
GRAVITY DAMS
are massive dams that resist the thrust of water entirely by their own weight. Most gravity dams, like the Grand Coulee Dam in Washington, are expensive to build because they require so much concrete. Still, many people prefer its solid appearance to the thinner arch and buttress dams.

TALLEST BUILDINGS

1. Taipei 101 - Taipei - 509m - 101floors
2. Petronas Tower 1 - Kuala Lumpur - 452m - 88 floors
3. Petronas Tower 2 - Kuala Lumpur - 452m - 88floors
4. Sears Tower - Chicago - 442m - 108 floors
5. Jin Mao Tower - Shanghai - 421m - 88 floors
6. Two International Finance... - Hong Kong - 415m - 88 floors
7. CITIC Plaza - Guangzhou - 391m - 80 floors
8. Shung Hing Square - Shenzhen - 384m - 69floors
9. Empire State Building - New York City - 381m - 102 floors
10. Central Plaza - Hong Kong - 374m - 78floors

CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION

With the use of cementing materials people had been able to construct houses, roads, bridges, buildings, etc. using naturally occurring and/or pre-fabricated materials such as rocks and concrete hollow blocks.
Before, primitive man uses naturally occurring stones to lay together and create rough walls, later he learned to trim it to fit better and become more solid and firmer. later again he learned to use bricks from clays and uses it to make structures such as the pyramid. Finally man uses various materials mixed together like cement, aggregates and others to create better, stronger, higher structures of today.

• CONCRETE - is a composite material made up of inert materials of varying sizes that are bound together by binding materials/medium. it contains cement, fine aggregates, coarse aggregates, water, reinforcing steel, and air.

1. Cement- a powder substance of lime and clay, mixed with water to make the mortar. It is the binding material used to connect or hold together other materials.
   
2. Aggregates-fine aggregates or sand is generally the product of natural disintegration of silica bearing or calcium bearing rocks. coarse aggregates usually come from natural gravel.
   
3. Water- is the solvent used to mix cement and aggregates to give it a plastic behavior. it's amount greatly affects the strength and workability of the concrete.

DO IT

Humans - in their nature- have the ability and skills to produce something big out of something small. It is their tendency to create things with something he has, as when you give him wood he will make furniture, give him stones he will make buildings, give him steel he will make towers.

Most of our structures, devices, appliances and other things were made out of man's curiosity, and ability to think and make.You need not to be super intelligent scientist with all the frizzy hair and thick eye glasses to be able to do or construct something.Because many of today's products are done and constructed by common and base peoples, those who really know the needs and wants of an individual. Even children today can create or construct things from their imagination, from playing Lego alone you will be amazed of how marvelous the figures they can make. Even robots can be created by an elementary or high school kids, especially in technologically advanced countries.

Now I have given you something to read, i know you can do something from it do it now.

Edward Hail " I cannot do everything, but I still can do something; and because I cannot do everything, I will not refuse to do the something I can do".